|
January 10, 2005
10:00 - 12:00 Session One
Linguistics & Epigraphy
Chaired by Kamaleswar Bhattacharya
Was Battambang Province Part
of Bhimapura?
by SON Soubert, Professor at
the Faculty of Archaeology, Royal University of Fine Arts
Starting from an inscription of Phum Dûng (Bhûmi
Ţûng), a short distance north of Prâsâd Banan, mentioning a dedication of a
lińga, called Prabhasasomeśvara, by a Kurak of Prâman Bhimapura, which should
not be identified with Phimai, formerly Vimaya, and taking into account many
vestiges of the pre-Angkor period in the region, especially at Baset and Banan
areas, it may assumed that Bhimapura was in that part of Cambodia and present
provinces of Sra Keo and Prachinburi in Thailand, where many pre-Angkor temples
and vestiges could be found. The originality of two lintels at the Battambang
Municipal Museum and a torso of a bronze Buddha image, may be indications of the
importance of the region.
Pre-Angkorean Inscription of Vat Luang Kau,
viewed from Kuruksetra, Haryana(India)
Chhom Kunthea
The inscription of Vat Luang Kau was deciphered, edited and translated by the famous French historian Goerge
Coedes. This inscription is found in the southern part of Laos near Vat Phu.
The implication of this inscription for Indochinese history where closely
examined by George Coedes. The inscription mentions that the King Devanika in 5th
century AD established a Mahatirtha in ‘Nava Kuruksetra’ at Vat Phu.
In this proposed paper, I have explored the reasons for founding of these sacred sites by visit of its
prototype in India. This paper is based on the fieldwork at the site of
Kuruksetra in India which I visited in October, 2004.
Lińgādri Of
Lińgapura Mountain In Cambodia
VONG Sotheara, Lecturer, History Department, Royal
University of Phnom Penh
An ancient puzzle toponym,
Lińgādri of Lińgapura that previously has been assumed to be
located at Phou Kao Mountain nearby Wat Phou in Champa Sak province of Laos, in
fact, is situated in Kampong Chhnang province of Cambodia. The location name of
Lińgādri appeared only one time while another analogue name,
Lińgaparvata, and Lińgapura were mentioned several times at different
places of Pre-Angkor and Angkor inscriptions. When translating an inscription
K.367, Barth (1902) suggested that Lińgaparvata was likely to be named Wat
Phou sanctuary. Then, George Cœdès (1952), in his study on a Sanskrit
inscription K. 441, of Yeay Poan temple at Sambor Prei Kuk, argued that
Lińgādri (or Lińgaparvata) and Lińgapura should be located
at the north of Wat Phou, especially, the top of Phou Kao Mountain was a likely
site. But there are many successive researchers who have taken this hypothesis
to be the truth. After careful study of a site, called Phnom Preah Theat,
located in Samki Mean Chey district, Kampong Chhnang province, I found certain
potential points of the real situation of the site that matched with the
information in the said inscription such as; the dimensions of the physical
Lińga, the existence of the sanctuary and its age, the direction symbol of
the inscription’s location, the parallel to Finot’s suggestion (1901) and the
proofs of the Lińgapura’s position. Therefore, I will use this evidence to
suggest that the previous assumption about the location of Lińgādri
was wrong, because it was based on less corresponded information. For instance,
a smaller natural Lińga of Phou Kao, the temple on Wat Phou Mountain and
many other high mountains in the area. However, in this study, I do not
absolutely refuse Barth’s hypothesis due to the possibility that both key
terms, Lińgādri and Lińgaparvata could be two separate proper
nouns though they mean the same. I will discuss in detail about these points in
the full paper.
PA Khmer — anyone for grammar ?
Christian Bauer, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
Although
word-structure and morphology of pre-Angkorian [PA] Khmer began to be studied
in a systematic fashion some forty odd years ago —most notably by J. M. Jacob,
and by H.-J. Pinnow before her— the examination and analysis of isolated
grammatical phenomena dates back only to the 1980s, when P. N. Jenner published
his 5-volume Chrestomathy of Pre-Angkorian Khmer [1980-82], accompanied
by a series of articles in ASEMI and Festschriften on copula-like
deictic verbs as well as subordination.
J. M. Jacob had already by then compiled a complete glossary of PA Khmer and shared her notes on PA Khmer
grammar with her students at the time, but publication of her project was
abandoned — a short conspectus of grammatical changes appeared in 1991.
The 1990s saw a lengthy study on nominal constructions and various approaches to the lexicon of PA, including
Long Seam’s dictionary of pre-Angkorian Khmer (2000).
The publication of Vickery’s Society, economics, and politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia (1998) represents a
major break not only for historians, as it contains a wealth of reflections on
PA language hitherto ignored by linguists — long prisoners of an obsolete paradigm.
This paper seeks a new approach to the study of PA Khmer syntax, corpus-based with emphasis on parameters such
as document type and document structure, discourse practices and other
pragmatic factors, and poses the question whether the writing of a ‘grammar’ of
PA Khmer is possible at all or whether the study of early Khmer syntax of that
period remains to be confined —for lack of appropriate data— to a selection of
well-attested particles and constructions. As the analysis of recent Mon
epigraphic finds in Burma has shown, specific syntactic phenomena are bound by
these parameters, among others. Following an outline and summary of work on PA syntax already published, this paper identifies further areas of
investigation within the PA corpus and presents paradigmatic analyses. It
dispells the misconception that “Old Khmer” was an homogeneous ‘language’ and
that Angkorian Khmer is in direct diachronic line to pre-Angkorian Khmer. PA
Khmer exhibits non-MK features. This raises then the question to what factors this discontinuity pA > A may be attributed.
13:30 - 15:30 Session
Two
Linguistics &
Epigraphy
Chaired by Philippe Peycam
Looking at Pre-Angkorian from still earlier times
Gérard Diffloth, EFEO, Siem Reap
The language of the Pre-Angkorian inscriptions has been
interpreted so far by starting from Modern Khmer and going progressively
backwards into the past.
This presents two major limitations: first, since the phonological history of Khmer has not been worked out yet, this approach reduces
Pre-Angkorian readings to philological guesses. Second, this approach gives us
little way of recovering linguistic information which has been lost from the
language since Pre-Angkorian times; that includes a very sizable vocabulary of
unknown words.
I propose here, with an example, a way out of this double dead-end. Comparative historical linguistics
of the Mon-Khmer family gives us information about a language far more ancient
than Pre-Angkorian Khmer; it allows us to look at that language downwards in
time, from the Proto-Mon-Khmer period.
Phnom Bayang : Linkages Between Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian
Epigraphy
Sachchidanand Sahai, Fellow, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla
(India).
Phnom Bayang is an important site
in southern Cambodia near the Vietnamese town of Chau Doc. The site is very
important since it has yielded a considerable number of inscriptions ranging
from pre-angkorian to angkorian periods. Through study of these inscriptions I
wish to demonstrate that there is not such brutal rupture between these two
conventional temporal demarcations of Cambodian history. When Barth
edited the pre-angkorian inscriptions of Phnom Bayang he pointed out that as a
Sanskritist he was unable to offer any example of Siva Pada
in India. I have found out the Gupta examples of Siva pada (foot prints
of Siva) in the middle Gangetic valley.
In the bas-relief of Angkor Wat,
mount Siva pada is mentioned from where the army of Suryavarman
II is shown descending. The Siva pada of Angkor Wat has not so
far been identified in most of the available historical writings. This
scene has been glossed over by a complete silence. In this paper an
effort has been made to establish that the pre-angkorian site of
Siva pada at Phnom Bayang was flourishing
in the time time of Suryavarman II and that at Angkor Wat the Siva pada of
Phnom Bayang has been shown.
Same but Different: A Comparison between Pre
Angkorean and Angkorean Temple and Exchange Items in Khmer Inscriptions
Eileen Lustig, Damian Evans and Ngaire Richards, University of Sydney
The research identifies changes in the economic
institutions and relationships within Khmer society through the Pre Angkorean
and into the Angkorean period in Cambodia. It aims to look at the rigidity over
time of the economy, by collating and analysing material and non-material data
from the inscriptions. Aspects of the economy, such as changes in approaches to
monetisation or trade and taxation, property rights and the role of the Khmer
ruler in these matters have already been discussed in detail by historians, but
the quantitative analytical methods described in this paper have the potential
to provide additional insight into these issues.
The carved inscriptions in the temples contain Sanskrit and Khmer texts. The most valuable sources of economic
information about the medieval period of Khmer history, the Khmer language
parts of the temple inscriptions, are written in a language that is not fully
understood. As well, many inscriptions are in poor condition or have sections
missing. Furthermore, these inscriptions were written by and for an elite that
was not representative of the whole society. Analysis of the inscriptions
therefore needs a method of connecting the disparate pieces of data in the
texts in order to develop a model of the context in which the activities
referred to in the texts was occurring.
The study has developed a relational database of information on material items, institutional processes
and societal relationships recorded in over 700 Pre Angkorean and Angkorean
inscriptions. The presentation illustrates some of the initial results of
analysis, showing what was given to or stored in temples and what was bartered
in exchange for land, personnel and services. The results indicate that there
are significant differences between the Pre Angkorean Angkorean and Angkorean
periods.
The inscriptions in the database have been spatially and temporally referenced, and a geographic information
system (GIS) can therefore be used to show trends and anomalies over time and
space in the distributions of temple sites; key items and materials; and the
roles of the rulers, the founders, donors and temple workers. These patterns
might be related to known historical events, both within and outside the Khmer
empire. Such a database allows the data to be readily accessed, shared and
augmented by researchers with varying interests. Analysing aggregations, trends
and co-variances of the data in the inscriptions may offer a way of overcoming
their limitations.
From Pre-Angkorian to Angkorian: The Syntax of the words
man, ni, and
syanÄ in Old Khmer
Chhany Sak-Humphry, Hawaiian and Indo-Pacific Languages and Literatures, University of Hawaii
Among a number of features that make Old Khmer an
exciting field of investigation is the circumstance that it still poses
challenges to the linguist after having been known and studied for well over a
century by Sanskritists, historians and archeologists. In the course of my
graduate and post-doctoral work, I have been paying close attention to the
function of a handful of hard-working grammatical items which, while essential
to any understanding of Old Khmer syntax, have hitherto not been analyzed in
terms of modern linguistics. This paper offers a grammatical analysis of the
words man, ni, and syanÄ as they occur in the pre-Angkorian as well as in Angkorian texts. First, I will review the interpretations of these
words by Finot, Coedes, Martini, Pou, and Jenner. Second, I reinterpret these same words from the perspective of Lexicase
Dependency theory. Third, I report how Jenner and I treated man, ni, and syanÄ in our recent analysis of the Sdok Kak Thom inscription (k.235). Fourth, I conclude by rehearsing the syntactic functions of these three words as
a way of emphasizing the importance of the role they play in the grammar of Old Khmer.
16:00 - 18:00 Session Three
Linguistics, Epigraphy and
Art
History
Chaired by
Son Soubert
The complexity and sophistication of exact dates in pre-Angkorian Cambodia
Karl-Heinz Golzio
Digital Resources for Pre-Angkorian Epigraphy and Lexicography
Doug Cooper, CRCL Inc., Digital Southeast Asia Library
We are fortunate that generations of
scholars have preserved and interpreted an extraordinary trove of pre-Angkorian
inscriptions. Yet Web-based or electronically accessible publication of data and analysis is rare, and few of
the software-based analytical tools common in corpus linguistics and computational
lexicography have been applied to these important texts.
The Khmer Epigraphy Workbench will fill the gap. As a universally available on-line
resource for students and experts alike, the Workbench will integrate
pre-Angkorian texts with modern lexicographic resources and tools, linking
words and texts to images, translations, or other commentary as available.
A general-purpose tool for studying both inscriptional content, and the
development and regional influence of the Khmer language, the Workbench
provides broad access to all available resources, both as language- and
dictionary-oriented lexical data, and as inscription-oriented textual
data.
For example, individual words or phrases can studied by their leading or trailing
collocates, or as found in larger-scale syntactic constructions. If necessary, the corpus can be subdivided
by time or region, while individual texts can be retrieved with words of
particular eras or loan origins highlighted. Links to images of the original inscriptions, other lexicographic
resources (like Sanskrit dictionaries), or other modern commentary can be
integrated as available.
We are demonstrating our preliminary work on the Khmer Epigraphy Workbench to
encourage wider public access to source and reference materials. We also wish to gauge the breadth of
interest in these digital corpus and dictionary tools, and to solicit comment
on (and suggestions for) features and content
About Pre-Angkor in the Angkor Region
Christophe Pottier, EFEO
Within the history of Ancient
Cambodia, the importance of the area of Angkor appears after the arrival of the
king Jayavarman II in 802 A.D., and with the installation of Roluos at the end
of the following century, understood like the first case and the model of
Angkorean town planning. Epigraphy and study of architectural and sculpted
remains are not sufficient however to solve, alone, a number of paradoxes
punctuating this remarkably ignored period of the birth of Angkor.
The paper will present some results of archaeological excavations carried out since 2000 in Angkor by the
author in order to investigate the early phases of occupations in Angkor, and to
improve our understanding of the settlements origins in this singular area. In
particular, it offers new data to identify and to date important changes, to
follow their character and to measure the extent of the evolutions that occurred
from protohistoric establishments to the first installations characteristic of
the Angkorean period.
Power and Propinquity: (En)gendering early Cambodian history
Trudy Jacobsen, Research Fellow,
Key Centre for Ethics, Law, Justice and Governance, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
A brief glance at any bibliography for a history of
Cambodia written in the last hundred years will reveal the immense
preoccupation that historians have had with the institution of kingship. Yet
little has been written on the role that elite women played in early Cambodian
political culture, despite the acceptance by at least two historians that two
queens apparently ruled in pre-classical Cambodia (c. 50-802). These female
sovereigns have been considered an anomaly, their reigns evidence that the
political and social equilibrium of pre-classical Cambodia was rent asunder by
the intrusion of female rulers into a male domain. Such a scenario is at
variance with epigraphic evidence. It appears that in most pre-classical
Cambodian polities, women held the power of sovereignty, even if they did not
always rule independently. This not only raises questions regarding the
accepted understanding of gender and power in pre-classical Cambodia, but also
calls for a revision of pre-classical Cambodian history.
A surveyor’s tale: catalogues (dé-)raisonnés, worst experience and “Best Practice” in
designing epigraphic databases
Christian Bauer, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
Based on my experience in surveying, inventorizing, and documenting
inscriptions in Thailand and Burma as a linguist I shall propose a few
basic guidelines for the design of epigraphic inventories/catalogues
/databases.
Inventory/documentation practices from Thailand and Burma are
contrasted with past French-Indochinese and current Cambodian ones, and
confronted with guidelines followed by epigraphers and art historians
in Europe for European artefacts.
It is telling that there are only two epigraphic inventories for
Southeast Asia: Duroiselle for Burma (1921) and Cœdès’s volume 8 of his
Inscriptions du Cambodge(1966). Thailand’s Fine Arts Department (FAD)
keeps records under lock at the National Library but publishes
occasionally volumes with newly recovered texts which contain meta-data
from their files.
I shall discuss what kinds of meta-data are relevant for philologists,
how to develop a descriptive terminology for palaeography, object
typology, chronological grids for undated texts and the like, and shall
contrast this with current practice.
January 11,
2005
9:00 - 10:30 Session Four
Investigations at Sambor Prei Kuk
and development of the master plan
Chaired by
Dougald O'Reilly
Study on the foundation structure of brick towers in Sambor Prei Kuk
Chhum Meng Hong and Ichita Shimoda
The Sambor Prei Kuk Archaeological Site is a 7th century (Pre-Angkorian) capital of
Chenla (Isanapura) which is located in Kampong Thom province, central of
Cambodia. During the 1990s, nearly all the shrines in this monument were
suffered from looter who tried to find out the deposit foundations beneath
pavement in each shrine, while the pedestals that were installed in each tower
was simultaneously broken into many pieces by explosive device so that each
tower the hole and scattered sandstone fragments. Although some hole was
filling back by intervention of Angkor Conservation Office, some pedestal
pieces were used for filling back work. By this reason, research team: joint
project between Ministry of Culture and fine Arts and Waseda university,
carried out the excavation survey in N7. N1 and S1 tower, and observation
survey at some ruins that located inside the ancient capital Isanapura in order
to find out the lost parts of pedestal for reassembling them and study on the
original foundation structure.
This presentation will discuss some preliminary result on the material and technique to construct the
foundation structure of brick tower in Sambor Prei Kuk complex and also the
discovery of some stone elements. According to this investigation, we found
that the structure has varieties in each tower, and is completely differed from
stone monuments in Angkor monuments.
Study on an ancient city, ISANAPURA
IchitaShimoda and Chhum Meng Hong
This report presents the outline of the
research result in 2002-2003 by Sambor Prei Kuk Conservation Project
that are joint project between Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and Waseda
University. ISANAPURA is an archaeological site that is identified as ancient
capital of Chenla in 7th century. This capital is surrounded
by square shape of moats and embankment in 2 by 2km. Although this geometrical
shape of capital has been found by the aerial survey in the beginning of last
century, no researcher carried out a reconnaissance survey up to now. This
survey is not finished completely according to the parts of deep forest. But we
found many ruins of brick tower and traces of civil work. Some of them
constitute the complex temple by multiple towers and moat. Besides, one ancient
road is confirmed from the west side of the capital and it is conjectured that
would be connected intermittently to Angkor monuments. This reports described
about these new archeological findings and capital structure that was emerged by
this survey in advance of the archeological excavation survey hereafter.
Preliminary Chronology for Sambor Prei Kuk (SPK)
Heng Piphal, Operation manager, Heritage Watch
Since the
discovery of SPK in the late nineteenth century by Adhémard Leclère, little has
been done beside graphical illustration and clearance. In 1927 Henri Parmentier
published L’Art Khmer Primitif and dated the monuments of SPK to the
reign of Isanavarman I based on inscriptions found at the site.
In 1962 B.P.Groslier undertook an
archaeological excavation between the north and south temple groups and
formulated the first chronology of the site. Groslier felt that SPK had been
occupied since Iron Age (the beginning of the first millennium) and occupied
until the thirteenth century. These conclusions are difficult to assess based
upon the material published by Groslier.
This paper will present a preliminary chronology of SPK based on artefacts and inscriptions found
throughout the Sambor Prei Kuk area including sites such as Krol Romeas, Sambor
village and Vat Maha.
11:00 - 12:30 Session Five
Naga Research Group
Chaired by
Ian Glover
Overview of the East Cambodia Archaeological Survey
Bong Sovath, Peng Sytha, Thuy Chantourn, Phon Kaseka, Mam Vannary, Ran
Seray Lakhena, Bion Griffin, Bertell D. Davis, Michael Dega
Excavations at Chamcar Andong, Kampong Cham
Mam Vannary, Bertell D. Davis, Michael Dega
(paper to be read by Mam Vannary)
Site Survey and Mapping at Choung Ek Kiln Site
Phon Kaseka
In Cambodia, in-depth research on ancient kiln sites and
Khmer ceramics has commenced only relatively recently. Ancient Khmer kilns are
found at many sites and surveys have been conducted on kilns at Phnom Kulen,
and at Sisakhet, Surin provinces in present-day Thailand. Some ancient kiln
sites were recently found in the Angkor region. These include the Anlong Thom
kiln site, the Sorsey kiln site and those at Tanu, Bakhong and Khna Po in Siem
Reap. A new discovery of an ancient kiln site at Choeung Ek, 59 km south of
Phnom Penh, may add to our understanding of ancient pottery techniques. This
paper outlines research undertaken by the author at Choeung Ek. Some kilns
still retain their small mound shape, but today have bushes growing from the
side and the top. There are potsherd spread on the kilns and nearby pieces of
kiln wall have also been found. The walls are yellowish brown on the outer wall
and dark reddish brown on the inner wall, produced by the firing heat. There is
also greenish glaze from ash which adheres on pieces of the brick wall.
14:00 - 15:30 Session Six
Osteoarchaeology in Cambodia
Osteoarchaeology in Cambodia: Past experience, current
status, future challenges
Chhem Kieth Rethy, Kate Domett, F.
Demeter, N. Tayles, Kyle Latinis, C. Pottier, E. Yap, Dougald O’Reilly, M.
Pietrusewsky, Miriam Stark, R. Ikehara-Quebral
The purpose of this study is to review the history of early study on ancient skeletons from
Cambodia and to summarize a number of current research projects that involved
human skeletal remains from archaeological sites in Cambodia. In contrast to the
pioneering years when all research projects were conducted by French teams,
scholars from a wide geographical areas (Australia, Canada, France, New-Zealand,
Singapore, USA) representing a wide diversity of backgrounds (archaeologists,
anatomists, bioanthropologists, molecular biologists, geophysicists,
paleoanthropologists, paleoradiologists, etc) have been involved in
bioarchaeological studies in Cambodia in the last 5 years. This
interdisciplinary approach will no doubt expand the knowledge in this promising
field. Despite their great diversity, these research projects share a number of
common goals including understanding population history and origins, life style,
paleodiet, health and disease and the environment of the prehistoric inhabitants
of Cambodia.
The EDXRF Oven and Artifact Recipes
D. Kyle Latinis, Ph.D., Research Fellow, National University of Singapore
Archaeometrical techniques are useful for analyzing various artifact attributes.
EDXRF (energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence) is a non-destructive technique that
has been used to analyze the elemental composition of ceramic, glass and metal
artifacts from numerous pre-Angkor, Angkor and post-Angkor sites in Cambodia and
Vietnam (e.g., Phum Snay, Prei Khmeng, Sambor Prei Kuk, Anlong Chamcar, numerous
Banteay Kou sites in Kampong Cham, Ba Phnom, Phnom Borei, Angkor Borei, Cardamom
Jar Burial sites, various Cham sites in Vietnam and other sites; named and
unnamed). Several hundred artifacts have been analyzed. In fact, the Cambodia
database is probably Southeast Asia’s largest XRF database, and perhaps
Southeast Asia’s largest characterization study database by any method beyond
visual analysis. Preliminary results will be discussed in the following paper.
In particular, the results have implications concerning trade/exchange
(interaction), technology and source material shifts over time. Other techniques
used for the pre-Angkor projects such as x-ray and computer tomography scanning
will be briefly discussed as well.
16:00 - 18:30 Session Seven
Pre-Angkor Metalworking Techniques and Their Possible Sources
Emma C. Bunker, Denver Art Museum
Surprisingly little has been
written concerning Pre-Angkor metallurgical techniques, and some of what has
been written is misleading. For example, it has been claimed that certain Iron
Age bronzes found in Cambodia, such as drums, urns and bell-shaped artifacts,
distantly related to Dongson culture styles, were cast by the lost-wax process.
However, historical evidence and recent scientific research by Dr. Pieter Meyers
indicate that they are not lost wax cast, but skillfully produced in
piece-moulds with an occasional application of wax added to create small
decorative elements. Such casting technology was introduced into mainland
Southeast Asia during the first millennium BCE ultimately from Yunnan where
large vessels and drums were traditionally piece mold cast, and certain small
items cast by lost wax.
Such Iron Age foundry traditions did not continue into the historical Pre-Angkor period. Instead, there appears
to be a change. The early Khmer ability to cast large sacred images by the lost
wax process can not have derived exclusively from Chinese foundry traditions,
but must have been partially acquired through contact with foundry traditions
prevalent in north India and Tibet introduced via Thailand. Contact with
casting centers in Vietnam also played an important role in the development of
Khmer metallurgy. The Chinese technique of mercury gilding was certainly
acquired by the Khmer around the seventh or eighth century via contact with the
Cham. Questions about early Khmer metallurgy and its sources need much further
research in the future to supply answers.
Indrapura? Or Vyadhapura?
THUY Chantourn, Lecturer and Researcher, Royal Academy of Cambodia
The ancient Khmer Kingdom has left thousands of
archaeological sites scattered throughout the land of Cambodia, Laos, southern
Vietnam and in Thailand. During the period of French colonization their
researchers focused only on those sites centered in the heart of the ancient Angkor
Empire at Siem Reap, north of the Tonle Sap Lake. There were many
archaeological sites which had been surveyed, excavated and inscriptions which had been deciphered.
Even so, there are some archaeological sites remaining, whose functions are not yet understood nor reason of their location. For
instance Banteay Prei Nokor is located in Ponhear Krek district, Kanpong cham province. It’s a huge ancient site, which was built on a field of over 4 square
kilometers, surrounded by a moat and huge enclosures of earth walls. But
nowadays, the site is under risk of decay. Some brick shrines, which dominate
its center show that it was selected as a capital ancient time.
It appears from studies of its architectural layout the discovery of brick shrines and some inscriptions
carved with Indrapura’s name, allowed some researcher such as George Coedes to
think that Indrapura was located to the east of Tbong khum district. That is
why we think that it was an ancient capital at Babteay Prei Nokor but according
to K.109N, Dr. Michael Vickery suggested that Vyadhapura might actually be near
Banteay Prei Nokor and Indrapura near Isanapura in Kampong Thom province.
This site needs further studies to determine the certainty of this ancient capital.
Archaeological Site of Sre Ampil-Kandal Province
Phlong Pisith, Phon Chea Kosal
The archaeological site of Sre Ampil, about 30 km
south-east of Phnom Penh, has only recently become a focus of research. I
conducted the first systematic archaeological study of the site in 2002 as a
final year thesis, under the supervision of Prof. Son Soubert. By early 2004, a
larger-scale study named "SITE MAPPING AND CULTURAL DISSEMINATION,"
funded by the Ford Motor Company, began in the area.
Located in between the two main rivers of Bassak and Lower Mekong, Sre Ampil is rich in mounds, where numerous
cultural artifacts can be noted. Site mapping in Sre Ampil village alone in mid
2004 enumerated 86 significant ancient mounds. In fact, there are many more mounds
spread all over the region that still need further study and research. On some
mounds, there are architectural remains such as pedestals, bricks, lingga, moon
stones, inscriptions, and artifacts of daily use such as pottery, axes, and
grinding stones. In the surrounding area, human and animal bones uncovered by villagers constitute another very important source for cultural and
archaeological study.
Preliminary observation of the remains and inscriptions suggests that the archaeological site of Sre Ampil has
been important since the Pre-Angkorean period. Geographical features such as
Sre Ampil’s location close to two main rivers (Bassak and Lower Mekong), and a
great lake of Beung Thom north of the area, show a possible ancient connection
of Sre Ampil to other areas through waterways. The rich amount of artifacts
found there also suggest that it was not only a religious area, but a
significant trading place, linked by water to many Pre-Angkorean archaeological
sites such as Angkor Borei, Cheung Ek, and Sambor Prei Kuk.
Since Sre Ampil is a very important source of data that can give information about ancient settlement and
trade during the Pre-Angkorean period, the site should be carefully studied,
and rescued from its present condition of being disturbed by the cultivation.
Most importance of all, underground data should be preserved and studied
thoroughly with archaeological techniques for the sake of understanding of
ancient cultural development.
Fish bones
remains
from Phum Snay, Banteay Meanchey
Voeun Vuthy,
Seng Sonetra
The faunal assemblage from Phum Snay comprises two different components: (1) animal
bones as graves goods and (2) bone fragments originating from settlement
activities. However, it remains doubtful whether the bones of the second are
contemporaneous with the real burial gifts.
The first group exhibits some very characteristics features. The mammal and bird remains exclusively
derive from domestic animals and include water buffalo, cattle and pig and
possibly a chicken. But fish were also incorporated in the grave cult. Judging
from the species composition and size of the fishbone they must derive from
prepared meals (fish soup?). With concern the mammal remains it is evident that
in four burials from Units A and C (excavation campaign of 2003) only the left
but complete fore limbs of large bovid and pig were deposited from scapula until
the toe-bones. These burial gifts were in most cases laid down on the left side
of the buried human, either left to his head, his feet or left to his corpse.
According to the exploitation of the animals during their life, bone of buffalo
proved only adult animals, cattle were offered as adult and young but almost
fully grown, and pig bone exclusively represent young animals. Regarding
buffalo, both sexes were used as grave goods, whereas gifts of cattle include
only cow remains. It is certain if the left humerus of a chicken was meant as a
burial gift or is a chance pick up.
The animal bones found in non-burial contexts reveal a broad spectrum foraging economy which exploited a
wide range of ecosystems: forests, grass and marshlands, rivers and inundated
fields resulting in the catch of deer, boar, smaller carnivores, cranes,
tortoises, turtles, monitors, crocodiles and fish. This majority of the hunt was
deer. Deer, cats and binturong are adapted to jungles and forests. The site’s
current environment is a man-made landscape with cultivated fields which is not
feasible for forest dwellers, thus, one has to reckon with more forested areas
at the site in prehistoric time. However, if crop cultivation during the late
prehistoric inhabitation of Phum Snay was as intensive and extended as today,
the forest species must have been hunted in the areas far away.
There are many variations available in the ancient Southeast Asian economy based on rice, cattle, pig and
water buffalo breeding, fishing and collecting and hunting of wild ungulates (Higham
1989). Burial techniques include similar rituals as observed in Phum Snay, but
also different rituals. Our analysis suggests that the burial rites in Phum Snay
have a very long tradition. However, there is a series of differences with whole
pig, chicken and dog skeletons and different positions of the animal gifts in
the graves.
The Faunal Remains of Phum Snay
Angela von den Driesch (paper read
by Dougald O’Reilly)
The excavation of Phum Snay, Banteay Meanchey Province, Cambodia revealed a prehistoric cemetery
of considerable size. Many of the burials at Phum Snay contained a range of
grave goods including ceramics, glass, stone beads and weapons of iron and
bronze. Many burials also contained animal bones, deposited as offerings in the
grave. Other faunal remains recovered from Phum Snay were found in non-burial
contexts, often bearing evidence of butchering. These remains were analysed by
Prof. Angela von den Driesch and Voeurn Vuthy. The results of their work
provides us with an interesting insight on life in Iron Age Cambodia.
January 12,
2005
9:00 - 10:30 Session Eight
Pre-Angkor beyond
Cambodia
Northeast Thailand and Khmer Culture,
from Late Prehistory to Lanxaang
Korakot Boonlop, Department of Research, The
Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre (SAC), Bangkok
Sureeratana Bubpha, Archaeological Research Section, 9th Regional Office of
Fine Arts Department
This study concerns the development of ancient inhabitants
who occupied the upper part of northeast Thailand. It revealed their cultural
development from Late Neolithic (about 4,400 yrs before present) to the recent period; the Lanxang cultural
tradition (during about the 14th-18th century A.D.). This area contains
evidence of ancient Khmer culture; for example, the boundary stones, and the
sanctuary constructed with lateritic rock which should be one of the chapels
associated with the hospitals under royal patronage during the reign of King
Jayavarman VII. We will present the development of ancient Khmer culture (and
perhaps also the meaning of political power) in this area which originated from
the late prehistoric period.
Notes on the pre-Angkor statues found in Champa: in regard
to a possible interaction between Khmer and Champa in the 8th century
TRAN Ky Phuong, former curator of the Danang Museum of Champa Sculpture
The recent finds on Champa art in Tuy Hoa town, Phu Yen province in years ago including
some of images of Hindu god and goddess. These images belong to the 8th century found at Thanh Ho citadel, one of the most important fortresses in the
southern Champa. The finds give evidences to the art relationship between
Cambodia and Champa in this century.
Regarding on the political geography, the Champa polity in the region of Phu Yen province was established
near by the holy mountain named Lingaparvata/Lang-gia-bat-hoa-da, the land was
also based on a long river connecting the lowland with the upland, which closed
with the east-northern part of Cambodia. The pre-angkor statues found in Tuy
Hoa are the convincing evidences for the interaction between Khmer and Champa
during that period through the ‘riverine exchange network’.
This paper deals with the interaction between Khmer and Champa in art during the
early period from the 8th to 9th centuries through the land route trading.
Pre-Angkor material from the Champassak/Wat Phu area
John Guy
11:00 - 12:30 Session Nine
Space and Form
The Appropriation of Sacred Space in Early Javanese Temples
A Preliminary Appraisal
Alexandra Haendel, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash Asia Institute,
Monash University
The historiography of ancient sites in Southeast Asia has hitherto been framed by a discourse of cosmological
representation, leading to an understanding of temple ‘function’ centred around
an analysis of architectural symbolism and representation. Primarily concerned
with the symbolic meaning of architectural elements such as central towers and
other shrines, these approaches have led to an inadequate appreciation of the
role of subsidiary buildings, sculpture and inscriptions within an analytical
framework of temple functionality. In order to address the limitations of
previous approaches I have developed a multi-faceted methodology, which creates
an analytical dialogue between conception and usage, based on an understanding
of the temples as dynamic, socially practised religious sites.
As in Cambodia, the theorisation of sacred space in ancient Indonesia in terms of spatial conception, and
temporality has yet to be undertaken. The paper proposed for this conference
will broaden the application of the approach outlined above to the temples of
Central and East Java – sites which bear significant similarities to the
temples in early Cambodia. Not only are the religious and geographical
backgrounds comparable, they also share important architectural
correspondences. Unlike in ancient Cambodia, though, we do find explicit
references to the usage of some of these sites in contemporary literature, most
notably Prapanca’s Nagarakertagama. Nevertheless, no attempt has been made to
apply the information given in those sources to the physical remains, in order
to move towards an understanding of the temples as multi-dimensional, socially
practised religious sites.
This paper, therefore, will present the outlines of a
prolonged study into the usage of sacred sites in ancient Indonesia, focusing
on the early period up to the mid-tenth century.
Dynamic Models as Tools for Understanding Temple
Forms
Pinna Indorf
The formal composition of the temples of early Southeast Asia can be baffling both in
their partial completeness and in their complexity. They can, however, still
often be seen as architectural components hierarchically arranged and
conceptualized as moving outward from the cella in ordered and rhythmical
sequences. Readings of the architectural elements and the iconographic and
stylistic elements could, at least potentially, complement each other. It is
possible they were generally ordered to suit (and express) the iconographic
program of the temple. A purview of early Indian temples seems to show that
regional styles included a preference for particular sequences of expansion,
which influenced the formal expression. This paper examines architectural forms
and details of some early Khmer temples (e.g., Sambor Prei Kuk) in relation to
others of the region, as expressions of movement patterns of a set of nested
components expanding outward from their centers. Expansion schema may also be a
key to some of the rhythm patterns and numerological sets associated with the vastumandala
of the composition. Reading these patterns in the architectural detail may
offer another tool to unlock some of the mysteries of these monuments, a tool
which begins with the architectural remains and addresses architectural issues
on several levels.
Genius of the Place
(Re)presenting Cultural Landscapes, World Heritage Listing, and Intangible
Values. Making Spaces into Places in Asia.
Ken
Taylor, Visiting Fellow, Humanities Research Centre, Australian National
University
Kirsty Altenburg, archaeologist, Department of Environment and Heritage,
Canberra (Aus)
Consult the Genius of the Place in all,
That tells the Waters or to rise or fall …
Alexander Pope (1791), An Epistle to Lord Burlington
World Heritage listing and public interpretation and
presentation for tourism at sites in Asia like Angkor has tended to focus on
architectural ensembles, notwithstanding archaeological research involving
wider aspects of landscape setting. Taking Angkor, Borobudur and Bagan as
examples this paper proposes a critical review of the concept of such heritage
places and their interpretation under the wider concept of cultural landscapes
replete with extensive intangible values and as outstanding examples of a
continuous living/nourishing tradition and history. In this sense the
architectural monuments themselves are a component of a wider cultural
landscape pattern to which they are inextricably tied. Seeing the monuments
without seeing their wider setting, their cultural context, is akin to seeing
leaves but not the tree.
The paper will be set within the framework of contemporary
concepts of authenticity and Asian heritage places and the burgeoning interest
in the cultural landscape concept in Asia. It will take as a reference point
documents such as The Nara Document on Authenticity (ICOMOS 1994), Towards
the Preparation of the HOI AN PROTOCOLS for Best Conservation Practice in Asia
(UNESCO, Bangkok, 2003), The World Heritage List – Filling the Gaps (ICOMOS
2004), Principles for Conservation of Heritage Sites in China (China
ICOMOS 2002).
Underpinning the paper is the activity of reading the
landscape with its sense of continuity and inter-relationships between people,
events and place through time and transmitting this to visitors. It is
considered critical that visitors are able to understand how places like
Angkor, from its earliest history, is part of a continuous landscape- making
tradition where tangible and intangible values merge. Should places like Angkor
be considered for additional nomination to the WH List as cultural landscapes
under the 1994 WH categories of Cultural Landscapes of Outstanding Universal
Value?
14:00 - 16:00 Session Ten
Naga Research Group
New Research in Memot:
Preliminary Results from the Test Excavation at New Archaeological Site Village No. 10.8 (Krek Rubber Plantation, Kampong Cham Province)
Heng Sophady, Memot Center for Archaeology
Village No. 10.8 is a new
archaeological site, which was found by chance due to laterite quarrying by
workers of Krek rubber plantation in 2000. Most of the site is destroyed by
quarry activities. The remains are distributed in the village area.
The site is located in grid 10.6 of Krek plantation, which lies around 8 km north of the headquarters of
Krek rubber plantation and around 2 - 3 km from circular earthworks sites. The
site is situated on a very slight slope close to a small stream. Krek, Village
No. 18 is a new name given by the local people. In former times the site was an
uninhabited field. In 1993 Krek rubber plantation moved the nearby village.
Before the move, that village was located in grid 10.8, but the people called it
only 18, not 10 point 8. The people still use the old name of the village even
after having moved to the new place.
Most of the site has been destroyed by laterite excavation although a significant portion remains untouched, especially under
dwellings. During the February 2001 field campaign, we started a small survey of
open profiles to gather some information about the situation of the finds and
stratigraphy. At that time we also collected many potsherds and stone tool
fragments which had fallen from the profile. At that time we also found several
pieces of a Dong Son drum.
The first test pits at the site were dug in February, from 18 – 28, 2002 under the direction of Kurt Langguth
from DAAD, Germany. During that time we found several nearly complete pots,
beads of garnet and glass, one spindle whorl, one complete stone adze, and other
artifacts. More tests were conductedfinds. A second test was excavated in 2004
in the framework of a field school in co-operation with Dr. Miriam Haidle, DAAD/Germany.
In addition to finds like bronze bangles shown to us by local people, many
interesting finds were discovered. Iron tools such as a sword, a spear point, a
little spade and spiral bangles were found in a burial context together with
several garnet and carnelian beads and few glass beads. Some large pottery
concentrations were also found.
This very promising site needs urgently further research to get more information about its extent and its relative and absolute
dating, before ongoing quarrying destroys it.
Pre-Angkorian Political Dynamics and Settlement Organization in Cambodia’s Mekong Delta: Findings from
the Lower Mekong Archaeological Project
Miriam Stark, paper to be read by Bion Griffin
The Ceramic Assemblage of Angkor Borei
and Implications for Early State Formation in Southern Cambodia
Bong Sovath, paper to be read by Bion Griffin
Phnom Borei and its Relationship to Angkor Borei
Phon Kaseka
From February to April 2004, a Cambodian archaeology team
initiated a research project to develop more findings in the area of lower
Mekong delta. The research based on excavation conducted in Borei village, Prek
Ptol commune, Angkor Borei district, Takeo province. Funding for this project
was funded by the American Embassy and the National University of Singapore.
The excavated trench was set a unit, 2 m x 4 m long, and divided into two 2 x 2
units. The depth of the excavated trench is 150 cm from the present ground
floor. The trench is located in the northeast of a mountain named “PHNOM BOREI”.
After excavation, the result of the findings included accumulated pottery, pellets, small beads, fish bone,
animal bones, turtle bones, bangles, anvils, iron slag. The unexpected result
was founded was an incomplete burial with a skull. There are 9 burials were
founded at the end.
16:30 - 18:00 Session
Eleven
Bronze Musical Instruments of Cambodia:
A Legacy of Khmer Prehistory
Sam Ang-Sam
Bronze culture of Cambodia dated back to the country’s prehistory, i.e., before
the first century of the Christian era. However little is known about this
period of Cambodia’s history, the present evidence of prehistorical remains,
including bronze drums, bells, and ornamental and daily life utensils, and
ancient Khmer stone monuments and epigraphy provide convincing accounts and
attest to the prominent presence and lengthy history of Khmer bronze culture.
Those evidences are found at the Khmer archeological sites of Samraong Saen and
Anlung Phdao (Long Prao) in the province of Kampung Chhnaing, Kbal Romeah in the
province of Preah Vihear, La-ang Spean in the province of Battambang, Srae Sbauv
and Phnom Roluoch in the province of Kracheh, and Memut in the province of
Kampung Cham.
Angkor, the most glorious and culminating period of Khmer history (from the
ninth to fifteenth centuries), left for us today with over one thousand ancient
stone monuments, large and small, and contains important historical evidence on
carvings of court and commoner’s daily lives, religious beliefs and practices,
as well as accounts on dance and musical instruments, such as pinn (angular
harp), khsae muoy (monochord), sralai (oboe), peat (half-moon gongs), korng
(gong), chhap (small cymbals), chhing (small finger cymbals), and skor (drums).
The make-up of music ensembles in Cambodia today includes the aforementioned
instruments found during the Angkor period, but in a more developed form.
Consequently, we have every reason to believe that the present musical tradition
of Cambodia is the living continuation of the tradition of Angkor and earlier.
For the interest of this paper, I shall allude only to musical instruments made
of bronze, brass, copper, and iron, etc., or mixture thereof, focusing
specifically on their origin, development, and function within both the
religious and secular contexts. Audio and visual materials will also be
presented when appropriate.
Inscriptions at Angkor (Tentative
title)
Long Seam
The Indian and the Pre-Angkorean Temple
A.P. Jamkhedkar
It is well known that both Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced in the Indonesian islands
and the main land in the early centuries of the current era. The temple
architecture initially in brick and timber and later in stone developed during
the Kushan and the Gupta times. Evidence from earlier historical sites like
Rajgir, Sarnath and especially Matura well attests to the Brick Temple
architecture of 3rd to 7th century A.D. The Gupta specimens from Bhitargaon
(dist. Kanpur, U.P.) and Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh also give an idea of the
developed Prāsāda form of the temples in North India. The famous temples from
Sarnath and Bodh Gaya give one an idea of the Buddhist specimens. The previous
two are examples of Vaishnava Temples. The differentiation between the northern
and the southern modes of temple architecture was not very clear till the
Chalukayas and Pallavas built their monuments at Aihole-Badami Pattadakal, and
Kanchipuram and its vicinity (the Shore Temple and the Seven so-called Rathas at
Mahabalipuram). Further regional modes of varieties appear in the form of
Bhūmija in Central India and Vesara in the lower Deccan or North Karanataka. The
surviving earliest remains of the new regional varieties can be dated to 9th and
10th centuries of the Current Era.
As observed earlier the early specimens of temples with towers (shikharas) appear
in the Champa and Founan regions by at least 5th century A.D. Scholars observe
that these temple types had already during the pre-Angkorean period developed
certain local peculiarities, though they share many architectural similarities
with specimens in India (e.g. the doorway and tympanum over it, the tower
consisting of multiple stories, the projections and recesses in the outline of
the sanctum etc.) The developed temple tower at AnkorWat for example according
to the observations of the author has great resemblance with the Vesara towers
of the lower Deccan. It would therefore be worthwhile to take up detailed study
of the development of the Ankora Temple architecture from the early specimens in
Founan and Champa. Possibility of certain elements in temple architecture being
again imported from Western or Eastern India in the wake of the spread of the
Pashupata and Pancharatna cults. The author makes a plea that a detailed
comparative study of Indian temple architecture and that in Cambodia be taken
up. This would prove fruitful, as in India the same is being understood in terms
of the Shilpi traditions of Western, Eastern and Southern India.
|